Since its origin in Europe centuries ago, tennis has been a Western sport dominated by men and white women. Female tennis players are often sexualized and questioned for their ability to control their emotions. Studies show that among women, top black tennis players face more discrimination in the media compared to their white counterparts. Nevertheless, Mlambo-Ngcuka, United Nations (UN) Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women, argues that sports empower women by breaking feminine stereotypes. According to Claudia Rankine of the New York Times, Serena Williams exemplifies Mlambo-Ngcuka’s perspective by overcoming racism and sexism in her quest for tennis greatness. Such discussion prompts the question: To what extent do racist and sexist structural barriers in tennis hinder the ability of women of colour to achieve empowerment and success in their sport? An evaluation of several prominent female tennis players of colour shows that despite barriers in several aspects of the sport, various women of colour have succeeded in tennis, using their platform to empower marginalized demographics.
The career of African-American tennis player Serena Williams demonstrates the numerous obstacles many female athletes of colour must face to achieve success in their sport. At the 2001 Indian Wells, a prestigious tournament played in California, the Williams sisters were set to play each other in the semifinals. However, Venus Williams withdrew from the match, citing an injury, and Serena Williams moved on to the final. Fans were suspicious that Richard Williams, their father, fixed the semifinal. Consequently, racial slurs barraged Venus and Richard Williams upon their entrance into the stadium to watch the final. Despite a home crowd that chanted racist animadversion throughout the match, heavily favouring her white, Belgian opponent, Williams overcame Kim Clijsters and the spectators to win the tournament. This instance of on-court discrimination captures the essence of the unfairness that extends into every facet of her career.
From a journalism standpoint, Williams faces more microaggressions in the news than her white counterparts. Cynthia M. Frisby, a researcher at the School of Journalism, University of Missouri, conducted a content analysis of 643 articles between 2011 and 2016, referencing Serena Williams and Angelique Kerber, a former world number one German tennis player. Frisby found that Williams faced significantly greater sexual objectification and racial stereotyping compared to Kerber. In several articles, Williams is compared to a gorilla and likened to a man, while viewers claim she is only strong due to her racial genetics. Furthermore, journalists frequently describe her body as “‘pummeling,’ ‘overwhelming ’ and ‘overpowering’ [her] white female opponents.” This stereotyping is problematic because not only does it entrench structural racism, but it also discredits the hard work certain players put into their craft from a young age to become strong players. Due to this stereotyping, Williams has faced false steroid accusations because of her muscular frame. Such allegations tarnish her reputation and discredit her achievements.
It is also critical to consider the impact of discrimination on mental health. Sabrina Razack and Janelle Joseph, researchers at the University of Toronto, conducted a critical discourse analysis of mainstream media focused on the representation of Naomi Osaka, a player of Haitian and Japanese descent. They found that the press critiqued Osaka for her skin tone, reinforcing stereotypes and anti-black misogyny. Citing her mental health, Osaka skipped a press conference at the French Open before withdrawing from the tournament. Her experience with press conferences demonstrates how misogynistic media portrayal can be detrimental to athletes’ health and performance.
From a financial perspective, women of colour are considered “less marketable” than other athletes of the same sport. In her magazine article, Rankine also indicates that in the 2015 London School of Marketing list of the most marketable athletes, only two women are in the top twenty: Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova. Despite leading their head-to-head record of 18-2 at the time of the ranking, Williams placed eight spots below Sharapova. In addition, five other male tennis players ranked higher than Williams despite having won fewer grand slams. Likewise, Rankine adds, Sharapova places higher on the Forbes list of highest-earning female athletes, making $5 million more than Williams. This difference is because Sharapova can more easily sign sponsorship deals and endorsements with her appearance despite being a less accomplished athlete.
It is important to note that the barriers female tennis players of colour face are different for each athlete. A player who contrasts Williams is Li Na, a retired tennis player from China. Li attracted mass appeal in the global market, making the 2013 TIME Magazine’s list of “100 Most Influential People in the World.” To do so, Haozhou Pu et al. explain, Li had to deviate from the juguo tizhi— a Chinese Communist Party government sports program that restricts opportunities for Chinese athletes—opting instead for a Danfei (“flying solo”) policy that separated herself from the Chinese government and required her to repudiate her citizenship. Throughout her career, Li has faced many unique challenges, demonstrating why it is crucial to understand that no single story is representative of all female tennis players of colour.
Women of colour who achieve prominence in the sport have used their platform to create change. For example, Venus Williams used her celebrity to bring about equal prize money for men and women. Serena Williams, Mlambo-Ngcuka states, was vocal about losing her ranking points after a pregnancy break. After attracting widespread media attention, the issue forced the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) to change its protected ranking rule so a player’s rank would remain frozen during a pregnancy break. Additionally, Mlambo-Ngcuka writes that the WTA decided female tennis players should be allowed to wear leggings or compression shorts after the French Tennis Federation reprimanded Williams for wearing a catsuit at the French Open to manage blood clots post-pregnancy. Osaka is a leader in the mental health movement; Li is an icon for athletes across Asia. In tennis, women of colour have broken through the glass ceiling, trailblazing for future generations of girls who look like them.
Throughout tennis’s history, structural barriers, including media discrimination and unequal marketability, have hindered the success of women of colour. Further research could identify ways to reduce these limits that negatively impact athletes’ mental health, performance, and well-being. While it is necessary to realize that no two athletes face the same obstacles, they all overcome their unique hurdles on their paths to success. Upon reaching the pinnacle of the sport, they advocate for equality and inspire younger generations, leaving the game better than they found it.